Rensis Likert (1903-81)

American professor and expert in employee behaviour (pictured right).

Key books

New Patterns of Management (1961)

There are four types of management:

System 1 (exploitive authoritative)

Autocratic and coercive (using fear and threats).

• can achieve high productivity (particularly supported by tight controls).

• makes employee relations worse leading to people leaving and poor quality work.

System 2 (benevolent authoritative)

Autocratic and persuasive (via rewards).

System 3 (consultative)

Limited employee involvement in decision making.

System 4 (participative group management)

• Total involvement by groups in making decisions

• Performance driven managers responding to employees’ needs and expectations.

System 4 delivers the

• highest productivity.

• best relations between management and employees.

Key quote

Authoritarian organizations tend to develop dependent people and few leaders

New Ways of Managing Conflict (1976), written with his wife, Jane

System 5 management is System 4 without hierarchical authority.

This will become increasingly important, because performance and competitiveness depend on:

• the sharing of power 

• knowledge.